1.Introduction
Ethiopiais one of the oldest civilizations of the world. It has been inhabited forthousands of years as the prehistoric sites in the Awash and Omo valleys haveclearly testified. The Axumite civilization in Northern Ethiopia wasestablished between 500 and 100 BC. Ethiopia has seven sites listed in theWorld Heritage Convention registry - Awash Lower Valley (prehistoric sites),Axum, Lalibela, Gondar, Tiya in Soddo, Semien National Park. Ethiopia Valley,Omo ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977 [1].These sites have an outstanding contribution not only to the history, art,science and broader culture of the country but also the world. The AxumiteKingdom is considered one of the four most powerful empires of the ancient timealong with the Roman, Persian and Chinese civilizations and empires.
Axumserved both as the seat of political power and a thriving trade center linkingsuch countries and areas as Egypt, India, the Somali Coast and further east toChina. It was also the cultural capital of the Axumite Empire and the numerous stelesfound in the city to this day represent the cultural imprint of the centralauthorities of the time through material iconographies expressing their mightand greatness. The Axum stele was built from the 1stto the 4th century AD probably asmarkers of underground royal burial chambers. Greenfield (1965) [2]asserted that the steles were clearly inspired and crafted by local artisansand represented the first ‘skyscrapers’. They are the world’s talleststructures carved out of monolithic granite rocks. The ruins of St Mary of Zionthat are found in the site were probably built around 340 AD [1]. Likewise, the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela inNorthern Wollo region of Ethiopia were built during the 12-13th centuries ADby King Lalibela. The 11 churches were carved out in groups of 5 with Bete Ghiorghisisolated from others. The layout of the churches and extensive system oftrenches, passageways, and drainage channels under each church is believed toreflect a secret religious pattern based on the topography of Palestine or of aNew Jerusalem, with each church thought to represent a stage in the life of Christ[1]. They are the products of a highly committedand religious political elite and sophisticated local craftsmanship. Derat, aFrench historian associated with the French center for Ethiopian studiesbelieves that the churches were built in three phases. The first phase involvedthe construction of a cave out of the original basalt dome followed by theconstruction of a fortress with trenches, a perimeter wall and undergroundtunnels and the excavation of the chapel of Gabriel Ruphael which some believewas once king Lalibela’s residence [3]. Culturalgeographers often associate the construction of significant material culturaliconographies on the landscape as the product of the attempt of governing eliteto legitimize and justify its power and control of peoples and resources. Suchvisual iconographies or metaphors are aimed at mobilizing or rallying emotionalsupport from subjects and arouse fear, respect or other emotions fromadversaries or contenders to power and privilege [4].Both the stele of Axum and rock-hewn churches of Lalibela should be understoodfrom both biophysical and political economic conditions of the times of theirconstruction and erection.
Thisresearch is aimed at looking at some critical environmental and politicaleconomy questions regarding the origin and construction of these materialiconographies of Ethiopian culture. The two sites were selected because of thecomplex and monumental nature of their material iconography as well as theirdomestic and international recognition as significant historical sites andtourist destinations. It tried to shed light on such questions as: What werethe environmental resources of the time that helped the political elite toembark upon the construction of such major material cultural iconographies?Were there external political economy influences that contributed to thesuccess of these elite to write a visual text on the landscape in an enduringmanner? Why have subsequent kingdoms and empires failed to build upon theirpredecessors and enrich subsequent generations in terms of their materialculture? What have been the efforts of modern governments, international andlocal institutions in protecting, conserving and preserving these magnificentrelics of Ethiopia’s material culture? What are some of the policy and programmeasures required to preserve and protect these historical relics for futuregenerations of Ethiopians and the world at large? These and related questionsneed to be systematically studied and known.
Thepaper is organized in five sections. After the introduction, section twodiscusses the major physical and cultural attributes of the cultural sites. Sectionthree examines the biophysical and political economy conditions that allowedthe development of these centers of cultural excellence. In section four, thedecline of the civilizations and the resultant deterioration in the conditionof the cultural artifacts is synoptically captured. Section five highlights thepreservation efforts made by successive generations. The last sectionunderlines the need for charting a direction of heritage site protection,restoration, conservation and preservation based on broad public awareness,understanding and participation.
2.Major Physical and CulturalAttributes of Axum’s Stele and Lalibela’s Rock-Hewn Churches
2.1.The Axum Stele
Thehistory of the Axum civilization in northern Ethiopia should be understoodagainst a background history of earlier centers of political and economic poweralong the Red Sea coast. The two most famous centers of such power were Yehaand Metara. Axum is believed to have been established about 500 years after thedownfall of Yeha and its port city of Adulis about 6th century B C.
Historiansbelieve that the fall of Yeha and Adulis could have taken place due to theinvasion of the coastal area from what is currently Saudi Arabia and Yemen.Axum survived as a center of political power and commercial activity forcenturies trading with distant lands by exporting such commodities as gold,ivory, rhinoceros horn, hippopotamus hides and slaves and importing suchproducts as textiles, knives, military cloaks for the nobility, olive oil andlacquer ware [5]. The height of the Axumitestele ranges from a 3meters dwarf to a 33meters giant. The six major stele rangesin weight from 43 tons (86,000 pounds) to 520 tons (1.02 million pounds) [6]. Araya notes that the Axumite stele were carvedfrom igneous rocks with glassy crystalline silicate composed of feldspar andtheir architectural design was based on a conception of a high- rise structurewith false windows and doors. The sophisticated masonry and architecture wasreplicated in many parts of northern Ethiopia (Figures1-4).
2.2.Lalibela’sRock-Hewn Churches
Lalibelais a small town in the Lasta region of Wollo province. It is situated in thenorth central highlands of Ethiopia at an elevation of about 2800 meters abovesea level. The rock hewn churches of Lalibela were carved out of soft volcanicrock by King Lalibela who ruled Ethiopia in the 12th century A.D. The United Nations Educational,Scientific, and Cultural Organization designated the site as the 8th mostincredible historical site in the world.The architectural and stone works of Lalibela are believed to have similarfeatures as those of Axum. The 11 rock-hewn churches were built to representJerusalem with the northern and eastern groups of churches connected by arock-cut channel (river) known as Jordanos River figure the Churches areinterconnected by narrow and deep passages. Bete Medhanealem (The house of theSavior of the world) is the largest and most impressive church while BeteGhiorghis (the house of St. George) is the most intricately carved into theshape of a cross.
Thechurch was the last to be carved out and has a parameter of 25 meters by 25meters by 30 meters with a small baptismal pool outside its [7]. The soft volcanic rock from which the churcheshave been carved out is showing significant signs of age and the results ofpoor conservation and management practices. Such problems as the crumbling ofthe rocks, flaking, discoloration, fissuring, encrustations and the growth ofvegetative matter and the loss of color of paintings are evident to thevisitor. Likewise, oxidization and rainwater runoff on the walls create clearand subtle damages to the structures (Figures 5-10).
3.The Biophysical and PoliticalEconomy Foundations
Boththe Axum Stelae and rock-hewn churches of Lalibela were the products ofspecific biophysical and political economy conditions that facilitated theirerection. The current physical geography features of both regions could best bedescribed as a highland plateau that has been seriously degraded throughmillennia of sedentary agriculture and poor management of the soil and naturalvegetation of the environment. Unlike Pharonic and Ptolemic Egypt and Meroe(present-day Sudan) in the Nile valley that exploited the waters of the mightyriver for their survival and greatness, the Axumite civilization was based onthe exploitation of the rather difficult Ethiopian highland environment and theRed Sea trade route. The steep river valleys and rugged terrain required morearduous communication than the easier flow along the Nile River [8]. The highland areas received considerableprecipitation to allow the growth of a wide range of grains that supported astrong sedentary agricultural population. It traded with Egypt, India, theSomali coast and further afield in China by sending such products as gold,ivory, hippopotamus hides, slaves and by importing textiles, knives, olive oil,lacquer ware and other craft products. The empire was also rich in gold andiron deposits and salt was widely traded. Accounts of trade starting around100BC between Egypt and India made the Red Sea an important trade route and theAxumite Empire took advantage of the new trading situation. The prominence ofAdulis, its port city on the Red sea, as an exporter of such goods as ivory,incense, slaves, exotic animals, salt grew subsequently leading to Axumitecontrol of the southern Red Sea [9]. Its navalpower was significant enough to police the Red sea route while its location inthe interior of a formidable highland plateau protected it from open conflictwith the two powerful empires of the time -Rome and Persia. Unlike the Egyptianand Meroe civilizations, the Axumite civilization neither suffered punitiveexpeditions nor was conquered by these major powers of the time. In fact, theAxumite civilization at its heyday extended its rule across Yemen, SouthernEgypt, Djibouti, Southern Saudi Arabia and Northern Sudan. It vanquished thekingdom of Kush in modern day Sudan by 350 AD. Its conversion to Christianitybetween 325 and 328 AD under king Ezana ushered a new era of culture in whichthe kingdom flourished. It became the first state ever to use the image of thecross on its coins. It remained a prominent power of the time until the rise ofIslam in the 7th century A.D. Araya (2005) notes that archeologicalfindings and historical and anecdotal accounts support the view that Axum had“a sophisticated policy, a highly-developed material culture, a well-developedagriculture including irrigation, complex astronomy including calendar,long-distance trade, fine architecture and definitely megalithic obsession withmasonry construction technique that we are unable to fathom to this day”.
Axum’smaterial culture was not only manifested in the magnificent stele that adornedthe various sites of northern Ethiopia but also in such significant artifactsas coins to serve the kingdom’s considerably developed trade with differentparts of the world. Minted in gold, silver and bronze, Axumite coins were usedfor both internal and external trade. Araya, quoting the work of Azmatch Kinf*ckidane notes that there were a total of 446 types of Axumite coins bearing thenames, pictures and emblems of at least 31 kings. This is clearly an indicationof the highly developed nature of the commercial economy of the Kingdom. On theinstitutional front, the Axumite civilization had developed its own unique Geezalphabets and liturgy, practiced pre-Christian, Christian and Judaic religiousbeliefs. Historians explain its decline as a prominent power to the growinginfluence of Islam in the Red Sea littoral and the lower and middle Nilevalley. Its loss of control of the Red Sea precipitated not only a politicaldecline but also economic isolation. The decline of the empire is believed tohave started in the early 6th centuryAD and by the 7th century it hadstopped the production of coins. Environmental changes such as climate changeand agrarian mismanagement of the land resources could have played anadditional role in intensifying the decline. The wheat and barley that weregrown in the region were complemented by the raising of livestock such ascattle, sheep and camels [10].
4.Decline and Deterioration of CulturalSites and Artifacts
Manywriters often attribute the decline of Axum’s extraordinary material andspiritual culture to the rise of Islam in the first half of the 7th century. The control of the Red Sea and Nileriver trade routes by the ascending forces of Islam isolated Axum from itsregional mercantile economic interests and pursuits. A more inward-looking andagrarian Axum stopped the production of coins signifying the contraction ofregional and international commerce. Climate change, over-farming of the landand its decreased productivity contributed to food insecurity and further declineof the Axumite kingdom [11].
Many ofthe stele erected in Axum to mark the underground burial chambers of notablesof the time are widely believed to have fallen to the ground due to seismicchanges, structural failures, the fury of the 16th century invasion of Christian highlands of Ethiopiaby the Adal Ahmed Gragn (1529-43) A more inward looking and agrarian societyensued thus ending the heyday of Axumite civilization. The rise of the Zagwedynasty in the 12th century in thehighlands of Lasta in Wollo brought about another significant development inthe material culture of Ethiopia. The carving of 11 monolithic churches fromthe volcanic rocks of Lalibela could be viewed as an extension of the influenceof Axumite civilization.
5.Preservation Efforts
Thepreservation and restoration of cultural artifacts (material), mentifacts(ideological) and sociofacts (institutional) is paramount in any strong andcomprehensive national culture policy. Knowledge about the Axumite stele androck hewn churches of Lalibela was made available to the outside world largelyby European travelers and expeditions. Lara (2007) [12] relates to the1520s Alvarez expedition as one of the first expeditions to provide a detaileddescription of the stele and the remnants of the Axumite civilization. Furtheron, the contributions of James Bruce and Henry Salt and the 1868 expedition ofNapier and Theodore Bent were cited as important in highlighting the sites assignificant archeological and cultural sites. It was, however, Enno Littman’sexpedition and archeological investigation of 1906 that was credited with thefirst systematic attempt to excavate and document the findings on the Axum stele [12]. National attempts at a more systematicpreservation of these magnificent material iconographies and world culturalheritage sites have been largely made in the later part of the 20th century. Themodern history for the conservation of the cultural heritage of Ethiopia goesback to 1952 when the Ethiopian government established the Institute ofArcheology in collaboration with the French Archeological mission. Insubsequent years, the Ethiopian government took a series of measures includingthe establishment of the Ethiopian antiquities administration in 1966; theintegration of the administration into the Ministry of Culture and SportsAffairs as a department in 1974; the establishment of a Center for Research andConservation of Cultural Heritage in 1976; the granting of autonomous statuswithin the reconfigured Ministry of Information and Culture in 1995 and finallythe upgrading of the center into an Authority for Research and Conservation ofCultural Heritage (ARCCH) in2001 under the reconstituted Ministry of Youth, Culture and Sports (MYSC, 2004) [13]. In Climate change, decline of the material baseof the political economy and internal conflict led to the deterioration of theartifacts. Many of the fallen steles of Axum are still visible to the visitor.The preservation, restoration and upkeep of the Axum stele and the palace ruinsnearby have been largely dominated by the effort to return the stolen stelethat has been standing in the Porta Capena Square of Rome. When the Italiansoverran Ethiopia in 1937, they found the large broken stele in five pieces inAxum. The Stele is believed to have fallen in the 4th century AD right after its erection. The Italian fasciststook it as a pillage of war and erected it in Rome as part of an attempt tocommemorate their conquest of Ethiopia. The stele remained in Rome despite a UNtreaty in which Italy agreed to return it to its rightful owner and place. Itwas not until 2005 that the return materialized. In June 2008, it wasreassembled and re-erected at Axum and unveiled on September 4 of the sameyear.
5.1.Preservation and RestorationPolicy
Theobjectives, powers and duties of the Authority for Research and Conservation ofCultural Heritage (ARCCH) have been spelt out in proclamation 209/2001. Theyinclude the registration, protection, supervision, collection, research,authorization, controlling and provision of professional and technical supportfor the restoration, preservation and conservation of all cultural heritages. Thepolicy is grounded in article 51/3 of the constitution of FDRE which stipulatesthat ‘the Federal Government shall establish and implement national standardsand basic policy criteria for public health, education, science and technologyas well as for the protection and preservation of cultural and historicallegacies” [14].
Theministry of Youth, Culture and Sports report on the cultural policy of thecountry indicated that cultural heritage preservation of the artifacts of theAxum historical site remained undefined due to logistical, financial,bureaucratic and ideological obstacles It noted that there was incompleteinventory of artifacts, low level public consciousness of their culturalheritage, poor condition of archeological collections and a distorted view ofthe material culture as a mere attraction of tourism and its economic spinoffs.
Thelong civil war that affected the region, inadequate funding, lack of publicawareness and strong government involvement have contributed their share to theweak nature of cultural heritage preservation in Axum and elsewhere Preservationefforts have also been unduly focused on the promotion of tourism. Whileheritage tourism is an important objective in protecting, restoring, conservingand preserving heritage cultural sites, it could have serious consequences onboth the artifacts and the economic and social fabric of the sites. Both Axumand Lalibela have become synonymous with tourist earnings for both the localand national economy.
5.2.Axum
Anexcellent example of a successful restoration effort made by Ethiopia was thereturn of the 1700-year old obelisk from Italy in 2005. Italy had taken thehuge stele in 1937 when it occupied the country for five years. Its rightfulreturn and erection at Axum in 2008 was a major achievement of internationaldiplomacy and public pressure. Another major step in the right direction is theeffort to build a new museum at Axum not only to preserve the culturalartifacts of the site and region but also to foster a better understanding ofthe significance of cultural heritage conservation, preservation and proper managementamong the public. Another complementary cultural preservation heritage projectbeing undertaken in Axum is the stele park which will have interpretive panelsand more accessible landscaping. These projects notwithstanding, Lara lamentsthe fact that the “biggest impetus for current development of cultural heritagemanagement in Aksum is the tourist industry [12]A few ground-level realities have been identified as actual and potentialchallenges for preservation efforts in Axum. They include the need for thepopulation of the Axum area to learn to live with their past and assimilatingthe modern with the ancient; lack of priority in government policy regardingcultural heritage preservation and site management; lack of funding, andshortage of trained experts in the field.
5.3.Lalibela
InLalibela, the deterioration of the rock-hewn churches has taken the form ofcracks, sliding of the façade and lateral walls in some, uneven settling, saltcrystallization and micro-vegetation incursions that have eaten away the softvolcanic tuff that makes the walls of the churches. Traditional attempts toprotect the churches included the covering of the roofs with woolen carpets andgoatskin tents [15] it was in the 1950s that thefirst systematic efforts to protect and restore the rock-hewn churches ofLalibela were made. The Ministry of Public Works of Ethiopia contracted theservices of an Italian firm, Sebastino Console, which resulted in the coveringof the churches with tar and painting it a reddish color to blend into theenvironment. The roofs of the churches were also covered by hundreds ofcorrugated iron sheets to protect the churches from the ravages of the sun andrain. In 1966 another Italian, Dr. Sandro Angelini, Director of theArcheological museum of Bergamo in Italy took charge of a new restorationproject at the behest of the committee for the Restoration and Preservation ofthe Churches of Lalibela. The new restoration project not only removed the tarwhich had prevented the rock from breathing but also filled the cracks withneutral cement and installed steel rods at appropriate places to stabilize thestructures. Five of the churches were enclosed in temporary shelters in 1989when the Ministry of Culture found out that the rock and paintings inside thechurch were being affected by the rain. In 1995, UNESCO, with the help of theEuropean Union, launched a new project to build metal shelters to cover andprotect several of the churches that were at risk of significant deterioration.UNESCO’s approach was based on the idea of designing and installing sheltersthat not only could be easily assembled and disassembled but also are “elegant,unobstrusive and easily comprehensive”.
Theprotection and preservation project has not been fully successful due to thetension between the local community which felt underrepresented and sidelinedand outside organizations. It was also alleged that significant project fundswere mismanaged and used to corrupt both local and external actors [7]. The Lack of funds, adequate public awareness,proper government attention and expansion of tourism has contributed to thedeterioration of the material iconographies at both sites. The juxtaposition ofhuts and other local structures in-close proximity with the rock-hewn churchesis a clear demonstration of the lack of appreciation of the dangers that suchencroachments could have on the long-term preservation of these ancientmaterial artifacts. The low level of local participation in protecting,conserving and preserving the relics has been attributed not only to the lackof proper appreciation of the value of the sites but also to socialconstruction of the sites as tourist destinations and sources of income.
6.Future Directions and Prospects
Thefuture directions and prospects for sustainable protection, conservation andpreservation of these and other ancient material iconographies of Ethiopiancultural landscape depend on a proper understanding and appreciation of thevery concept of culture by citizens, the public, the state and itsinstitutions. It should go beyond the politicization of culture as aninstrument of coercion, subordination and economic benefit by those in powerand privilege. It must go beyond the mechanical process of mere posturing bydefining objectives, strategies and activities through politically-drivenproclamations and ministerial declarations, programs and activities. It is forthis reason that the foundation for the sustainable protection, conservationand preservation of all the material (artifacts), ideological (mentifacts) and institutional(sociofacts) components of Ethiopian culture should lie in the education of thepublic. People should be educated to develop a serious concern, understanding,pride, and enthusiasm about their culture. Such awareness should encompass allaspects of the country’s cultural and natural heritage. Awareness leads topassion for knowledge, preservation, conservation and protection of ourirreplaceable cultural heritage. The creation of strong institutionalframeworks and working arrangements at national, regional and local levels iscritical for the preservation of our cultural heritage sites. Obviously, theresources required for such institutional presence and operational frameworksmay be beyond the capacity of the federal government. Yet, it is imperativethat a strong public/private partnership domain be established to provide bothdirection and thrust to restoration, conservation, preservation and researchefforts. The emphasis made on strong public involvement in the national culturepolicy guideline was based on the recognition that such trajectory of thinkingand praxis was in the right direction. To be effective, this approach will haveto be given credible national government and international organization supportin technical, financial, man power and logistical terms.
Thereorganization, conservation and restoration of both Axum and Lalibela culturalheritage sites should be viewed as an inter-sect oral engagement involving manyministries and specialized institutions. While the umbrella function of theMinistry of Youth, Culture and Sports is significant and critical, the activeinvolvement of such agencies as Education, Information, Urban Development andPublic Works, Agriculture, Labor and Social Affairs and others deemed relevantcannot be underemphasized. Each sector has an important contribution to makethe cultural sites significant to the lives of ordinary people and visitors alike.Probably, the inventory of the artifacts of the two sites is the foremost taskthat needs to be done through the collaboration and assistance of externalscientific research and cultural institutions. The Ethiopian government, UNESCOand the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and otherappropriate institutions should work out a strategy and plan of action to availresources for a comprehensive and detailed inventory of artifacts of the sites.Finally, the urgent need for the preservation of our cultural heritage waspassionately expressed by the late famous Ethiopian poet laureate, TsegayeGebre-Medhin and deserves to be followed by all Ethiopians:
7.Appeal for our Cultural Heritage
Epicentered in the epic of ourdaily presence
And in each brave generation’slife
This collective imagery of ourmonumental memory,
Our World Heritage, our onesymbolic banner
For our one family of thehumankind,
From our yesterdays to ourtomorrows
Rising above all the ominousclouds
Bridging all our global andprejudicial distances,
Gloriously grows in us the greatmiracles
Our ancestors achieved for ourhuman harmony.
That is why we must keep onprotecting it, please
With all our resources and withour lives.
By its very invaluable presencein time
Our cultural heritage challengeseach brave new generation
Relentlessly towards a higherhuman perfection
It protects our indomitablespirit from corruptibility
And annihilates the moralmidgets that crawl
To deform the boundless humanityin us.
Our world heritage is itself theeternal witness
The eternal code and the eternalreminder
That the humankind is still thesupreme architect
In whose masterful creativegifts
We must entrust this greaterwonder
Our world heritage, our onesymbolic banner
For our family of the humankind.
That is why we must keep onprotecting it, please
With all our resources and ourlives
IUCN, 1992, p.110
